Progesterone is important for normal reproductive and menstrual function, and influences the health of bone, blood vessels, heart, brain, skin, and many other tissues and organs. As a precursor, progesterone is used by the body to make other steroid hormones, including DHEA, cortisol, estrogen and testosterone. In addition, progesterone plays an important role in mood, blood sugar balance, libido, and thyroid function, as well as adrenal gland health.

Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum following ovulation and to a lesser extent by the adrenal glands in both sexes. While found in the urine in small amounts, progesterone can be seen as a clinical marker of luteal activity and theraputic oral progesterone administration.

Progesterone is present in men but at a much lower level than found in premenopausal women. Progesterone is not only a female hormone. Although in females it is responsible for protecting the unborn child from rejection during pregnancy, progesterone performs various other functions in both men and women. Progesterone is the precursor to other hormones, including testosterone, the sex hormone that emphasizes male characteristics.

Progesterone is a female sex hormone of primary importance in ovulation, fertility and menopause. It is particularly important in preparing the endometrium for the implantation of the blastocyte and in maintaining pregnancy. In the follicular phase of menstrual cycle progesterone is produced in low levels. It increases to the LH peak and then sharply rises to high levels. Next there is a sharp decline to low levels of follicular phase. In non-pregnant women progesterone is mainly secreted by the corpus luteum whereas in pregnancy the placenta becomes the major source. Minor sources for progesterone are the adrenal cortex for both sexes and the testes for males.

Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum following ovulation and to a lesser extent by the adrenal glands in both sexes. While found in the urine in small amounts, progesterone can be seen as a clinical marker of luteul activity and theraputic oral progesterone administration. The most important progesterone metabolite, pregnanediol (PDL), can serve as a urinary marker for endogenous progesterone levels and as an indicator of ovulation.

Progesterone is manufactured in the ovaries at about 10-30 mg of progesterone each day during the latter half of the menstrual cycle (luteal phase). Younger women with regular cycles generally make adequate progesterone, consistent with their having fewer symptoms of estrogen excess. Progesterone is important in normal menstrual cycles, breast development, maintaining pregnancy, relaxing blood vessels and influencing neurotransmitters in the brain.

Progesterone plays an important role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. Levels of progesterone rise with pregnancy, and rise even higher if there are twins. Imbalances of progesterone are linked with health challenges in both men and women.

Progesterone’s primary function during the menstrual cycle is to induce a secretory endometrium ready for implantation of a fertilized egg. Levels therefore increase during the luteal phase of the cycle after ovulation. If no implantation occurs, progesterone returns to follicular phase levels.

Progesterone’s primary function during the menstrual cycle is to induce a secretory endometrium ready for implantation of a fertilized egg.

Levels therefore increase during the luteal phase of the cycle after ovulation.

If no implantation occurs, progesterone returns to follicular phase levels. If a pregnancy results, progesterone continues to rise to very high levels and carries out a variety of functions necessary to sustain the pregnancy.

In some patients with infertility, ovulation may occur but luteal phase levels of progesterone are inadequate. Luteal phase deficiency is a result of inadequate progesterone production by the corpus luteum.

During menopause, ovarian progesterone production dwindles, resulting in postmenopausal levels similar to those seen in men.

Progesterone has wide-ranging physiological effects, including neuroprotection, maintenance of skin elasticity, and development of bone tissue. Progesterone also counteracts the proliferative effects of estrogen on the endometrium. When samples are collected after transdermal application of progesterone, saliva progesterone levels are higher than serum, indicating distribution of progesterone to tissues.

Proinsulin is the precursor of insulin and C-peptide. Following synthesis, proinsulin is packaged into secretory granules, where it is processed to C-peptide and insulin by prohormone convertases and carboxypeptidase E.

Only 1% to 3% of proinsulin is secreted intact. However, because proinsulin has a longer half-life than insulin, circulating proinsulin concentrations are in the range of 5% to 30% of circulating insulin concentrations on a molar basis, with the higher relative proportions seen after meals and in patients with insulin resistance or early type 2 diabetes. Proinsulin can bind to the insulin receptor and exhibits 5% to 10% of the metabolic activity of insulin.

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that causes breast development in women and milk production in pregnant women. Prolactin does not have known biological function in men.

Prolactin: Functions, Normal Ranges, and Clinical Significance

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a vital role in reproductive health and various physiological processes.

Functions of Prolactin

• In Women: Primarily responsible for breast development and milk production, with levels rising during pregnancy and peaking at delivery.
• In Men: Contributes to reproductive function, though its role is less pronounced.
• In Both Genders: Can fluctuate due to nipple stimulation, breastfeeding, and physical or emotional stress.

Normal Prolactin Ranges (ng/mL)

Prolactin Levels During Puberty (Tanner Stages) (ng/mL)

When prolactin levels exceed normal ranges, a condition called hyperprolactinemia may develop, potentially indicating underlying health conditions that require medical evaluation. Monitoring prolactin levels is crucial for diagnosing and managing hormonal imbalances that affect fertility, metabolism, and overall endocrine health.

Proline is a nonessential amino acid. It contains a secondary α-imino group and is sometimes called an α-imino acid. Proline, and its metabolite hydroxyproline, constitute a third of the total amino acids found in collagen. Lysine, proline, hydroxyproline, and vitamin C are all important in the synthesis of collagen for skin, bones, tendons, and cartilage. Proline is abundant in meat, bone meal, poultry, salmon, wheat, barley, and corn. In addition to dietary sources, proline can be synthesized from glutamate/glutamine, arginine, and ornithine. It can also be synthesized within enterocytes from degradation of small peptides.

Proline is a nonessential amino acid. It contains a secondary α-imino group and is sometimes called an α-imino acid.

Proline, and its metabolite hydroxyproline, constitute a third of the total amino acids found in collagen. Lysine, proline, hydroxyproline, and vitamin C are all important in the synthesis of collagen for skin, bones, tendons, and cartilage.

Proline is abundant in meat, bone meal, poultry, salmon, wheat, barley, and corn.

Collagen Catabolism: Collagen contains proline, hydroxyproline, and glycine.

→ Sarcopenia (low muscle mass) was associated with higher plasma proline.

→ Proline was significantly lower in esophageal cancer patients compared to the healthy controls.

→ Hydroxyproline and proline together constitute around 25% of residues and allow for stability and twisting of collagen.

→ Dietary intake increases levels of proline and hydroxyproline.

→ Proline and hydroxyproline both negatively correlated with a higher likelihood of anxiety, depression, and psychoses.