Calprotectin is a protein that binds to both calcium and zinc. Fecal calprotectin levels are abnormally increased in people with intestinal inflammation, thus it is useful for distinguishing between inflammatory and non-inflammatory diarrhea.

Calprotectin is a marker of inflammation in the gut. Although it is not diagnostic of inflammatory bowel disease, calprotectin can indicate the possibility of Crohn’s disease, chronic ulcerative colitis, and/or the overuse of NSAID medication.

Calprotectin is an abundant neutrophil protein. It belongs to the family of S100 calcium binding proteins. Calprotectin is released from activated leukocytes during activation or cell death leading to increased concentrations in plasma, serum, spinal fluid, synovial fluid, urine, saliva or stools. As an antimicrobial, Calprotectin is increased during bacterial infections or inflammation in relevant organs.

Campesterol is a critical marker on the Boston Heart Cholesterol Balance® test, providing valuable insights into cholesterol absorption. As a plant sterol, campesterol is absorbed into intestinal cells and serves as an excellent indicator of how much cholesterol is being absorbed from the diet. Elevated levels of campesterol in the bloodstream suggest increased cholesterol absorption, which can influence the effectiveness of certain cholesterol-lowering treatments. By measuring campesterol, alongside other markers like lathosterol and beta-sitosterol, the Boston Heart Cholesterol Balance® test offers a comprehensive assessment of a patient's cholesterol metabolism, enabling healthcare providers to tailor treatment strategies more effectively to manage and reduce cardiovascular disease risk.

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If your levels are moderately elevated:

Moderately elevated levels of campesterol indicate an increased absorption of cholesterol from dietary sources. This can suggest that the body is taking in more cholesterol than it is producing internally. Elevated campesterol levels are significant because they can impact the effectiveness of cholesterol-lowering medications, such as statins, which primarily reduce cholesterol production rather than absorption. In such cases, alternative or additional treatments, like ezetimibe, which specifically targets cholesterol absorption, may be considered. Monitoring campesterol levels provides valuable information for tailoring patient treatment plans to more effectively manage cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

When people worry about eating undercooked chicken, they usually focus on getting sick from salmonella bacteria. But another common type of bacteria called campylobacter can also make you ill if you eat poultry that isn’t fully cooked.

Most Campylobacter infections in industrialized countries are caused by C. jejuni, C. coli, and C. lari with an estimated 1.5 million cases of foodborne illness due to Campylobacter per year in the US. Campylobacter spp. are responsible for approximately 15% of hospitalizations resulting from foodborne infections.

Generally, campylobacteriosis presents as one to three days of fever, vomiting, and headaches followed by three to seven days of watery or bloody diarrhea and may include abdominal pain, cramping, nausea, headache, and/ or muscle pain within 2-5 days of infection.

Contaminated water, pets, food, unpasteurized milk and undercooked poultry, are sources of infection. Use of antibiotics is controversial but may benefit children whom have had symptoms for less than 7 days, and immunocompromised individuals.

C. jejuni is a gram-negative bacterium that causes severe gastroenteritis. Due to C. jejuni’s ability to produce lipoligosaccharides, the bacteria are able to invade intestinal epithelial cells. Beyond the gut wall, C. jejuni has been implicated in disorders such as arthritis and Guillain-Barré syndrome. The severity of these disorders makes C. jejuni an important environmental trigger to assess while working up certain autoimmune patients.

Campylobacter spp. is a foodborne pathogen responsible for causing gastroenteritis. Infection typically occurs after consuming contaminated food, especially poultry, unpasteurized milk, and water. Patients infected with Campylobacter may experience symptoms such as acute watery or bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramping, and weight loss. In some cases, the infection can lead to more severe health issues, such as the autoimmune condition Guillain-Barré syndrome, which can cause muscle weakness and paralysis.

Candida albicans is a filamentous yeast that colonises the mouth and gastrointestinal tract of more than 60% of healthy adults. In immunocompromised subjects (cancer, organ transplants, AIDS) it often causes the infection candidiasis. Superficial infections commonly affect the mouth and vagina, while systemic infections, often together with S. aureus, have a 40-60% mortality rate. C. albicans is associated with small intestinal fungal overgrowth (SIFO), causing bloating, diarrhoea and nausea. C. albicans is also associated with Crohn’s disease.

The Candida albicans marker in a gastrointestinal (GI) panel is a crucial indicator of the presence and concentration of Candida albicans, a yeast-like fungus, in the gut microbiome. Candida albicans is a common commensal organism in the human body, residing in the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, and vaginal mucosa without causing harm under normal circumstances. However, an overgrowth of this fungus, as suggested by elevated levels in a GI panel, can lead to candidiasis, a condition that manifests in various forms depending on the affected area. In the context of the gastrointestinal tract, an overgrowth can disrupt the delicate balance of the gut microbiome, leading to symptoms like bloating, gas, diarrhea, and in some cases, systemic symptoms if the fungus enters the bloodstream.

A separate test for IgG antibody to Candida (serum and DBS) is included because of Candida’s importance to overall health. IgG antibodies to Candida may be due to current or past infection or intestinal overgrowth. An elevated Candida IgG indicates the immune system has interacted with Candida. Although Candida and related fungal species are normal constituents of GI flora, use of antibiotics, oral contraceptives, chemotherapy, or anti-inflammatory steroids increases the possibility of fungal overgrowth and imbalance of GI flora. Dietary improvements and/or antifungal therapy may lower Candida antibodies and reduce symptoms.

C. albicans is a human commensal yeast. By penetrating the intestinal barrier this pathogen is able to thrive in the human host. Its inflammatory effect in the gastrointestinal tract opens the intestinal barrier, putting tissue and organs at risk for autoimmunity. Candida has been shown to crossreact with a variety of human tissues and thus, when Candida or its antigens reach the blood stream, the antibodies produced against it may turn on self-tissue proteins. The end result can be autoimmunity.

Commensal fungi that can be pathogenic to immunocompromised patients. Causes vaginal yeast infections and can be fatal in systemic infections. May cause diarrhea. Has been suggested to cause a cluster of symptoms including GI complaints, fatigue, and muscle or joint pain but evidence is weak.

Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by yeasts that belong to the genus Candida. There are over 20 species of Candida yeasts that can cause infection in humans, the most common of which is Candida albicans.